Читать книгу: «Coach’s role in building athletes’ psychological resilience. Theoretical foundations and applied methods», страница 2

Psychological resilience is especially important in swimming due to high sensory isolation, the necessity to precisely control technique and movement rhythm, and strong physical and psychological tension. One of the most important factors is emotional regulation, enabling sportsmen and women to achieve the optimal level of activation and stress acclimatization at competitions. Competition preparation includes learning mental techniques for anxiety regulation, effective visualization of performance, and self-confidence enhancers.

Psychological resilience development in swimmers requires an integrated training system that unites physiological and technical training with intensive cognitive self-regulation skills development. This helps athletes effectively cope with competitive pressure, retain concentration, and maintain high motivational levels throughout all stages of their sporting life.

1.2. Factors influencing an athlete’s psychological resilience

An athlete’s psychological resilience is a complex integrative phenomenon shaped by multiple factors, with personality traits, physiological characteristics, and the influence of the social environment playing a key role. This includes interactions with the coach, parents, and team. Psychological resilience results from the interaction between internal psychophysiological resources and external conditions established during an athlete’s training process.

Its development is determined not only by individual characteristics of the nervous system, temperament, and self-regulation strategies but also by the nature of social support, the level of a coach’s expectations, the type of feedback provided, and the emotional climate within the sports environment.

1.2.1. Physiological and personality characteristics

The development of psychological resilience largely depends on an athlete’s innate physiological traits. According to the biopsychological model proposed within the framework of neuropsychological research, key factors influencing stress resistance include the type of nervous system, the level of activation of cortical and subcortical structures, and biochemical processes responsible for regulating emotions and responses to stress [13].

Different athletes exhibit varying levels of tolerance to stress loads, which are determined by individual characteristics of the central and autonomic nervous systems, hormonal profile (levels of cortisol, adrenaline, and noradrenaline), and the speed of recovery processes (table 1) [14].

Table 1. Physiological factors of stress resilience

Athletes have varying tolerance to stress loads, which is determined by individual characteristics of the central and autonomic nervous systems, hormonal profile (levels of cortisol, adrenaline, and noradrenaline), and the speed of recovery processes.

These physiological factors also affect the athlete’s ability to maintain performance under continuous physical and emotional stress. Accurate profiling of these parameters facilitates enhanced individualization of training and adaptation tracking. Emotional regulation mechanisms and cognitive control are also critical in maintaining stability under competition.

Different sports impose specific demands on an athlete’s psychophysiological characteristics. Therefore, temperament largely determines predisposition to certain disciplines, influencing concentration ability, stress resilience, and motivation levels (table 2) [15].

Table 2. The influence of temperament on predisposition to sports

Thus, temperament plays a significant role in the adaptation of an athlete to sports competition, stress resistance, concentration capacity, and performance level in severe conditions. Choosing a sport corresponding to the psychological characteristics of an individual optimizes the process of training, reduces psycho-emotional stress, and enhances athletic performance.

Additionally, the degree of anxiety, emotional lability, and cognitive capabilities also matters. Increased anxiety exerts a detrimental effect on the athlete’s concentration potential, stress-based decision-making ability, and self-regulation during competitions. Good cognitive abilities in reappraisal of stress-inducing situations, self-regulation, and awareness of emotional response, in contrast, are sound indicators of adaptation in sport.

According to a study [16] conducted among 273 athletes (aged 12 to 34, selected through random sampling), a significant relationship was identified between anxiety, self-confidence, and concentration. The analysis revealed four key factors influencing stress resilience: cognitive anxiety (24.83% of total variance), somatic anxiety (11.86%), self-confidence (15.49%), and concentration (11.05%). It was found that athletes with high levels of cognitive anxiety more frequently exhibited decreased concentration and struggled more with stress. At the same time, self-confidence served as a protective factor: athletes with higher self-confidence levels had significantly lower anxiety and better concentration.

Based on the Mann – Whitney U test, a significant gender difference was found in cognitive indicators, self-confidence, and concentration. Women experienced higher cognitive anxiety (11.67 ± 3.97 vs. 9.26 ± 3.23 in men), while men demonstrated higher self-confidence (19.54 ± 3.08 vs. 17.47 ± 3.74 in women).

The study verified that the well-documented cognitive reappraisal skill of stressful events, self-regulation, and familiarity with emotional responses are key to the successful adaptation of athletes. Athletes who employed cognitive self-regulation strategies on a regular basis (reframing, attention control, success visualization) possessed 23% higher rates of concentration during competitions and 17% reduced anxiety levels compared to the control group. Particular stress management instruction and self-esteem skills contribute to enhance enhanced sporting performance and resilience to stress in pressure situations.

Physiological characteristics, including some level of physical fitness, rate of recovery, and hardness, also have an important role to play in psychological resilience in sport. Studies affirm that fitter athletes exhibit more stable emotion regulation, which relates to the capacity of the body to adapt against stress and smaller biochemical reaction to stress.

A review of scientific studies [17] confirmed that regular physical activity reduces cortisol levels by an average of 0,37 standard deviations. This influence indicates a moderate but statistically significant decrease of the stress hormone, which results in reduced psycho-emotional tension. The meta-analysis included 10 RCT with a sample of 756 individuals, predominantly women (90%). Various methods of cortisol measurement were used in the studies (saliva, blood), but regardless of the method, intervention groups showed a significant decrease in hormone levels in comparison with control groups.

Thus, psychological resilience of a sportsman is largely characterized by his or her physiological characteristics, degree of physical preparedness, and endogenous nervous system characteristics forming a foundation for adaptive self-regulation mechanisms during severe physical and mental stress. Besides personal biological characteristics, social conditions engage in stress resistance, e.g., communication with coaches, team members, and parents.

1.2.2. The influence of the social environment on an athlete’s psychological resilience

A sportsperson’s psychological resilience is not just determined by individual and physiological factors but also through social encounters with the environment they are exposed to during training and competition. Among the social determinants of stress resilience, family support and the sporting environment play a very crucial role.

Family support is a key to the formation of motivation, self-confidence, and coping with problems [18]. Parents affect the perception of stressful experience by an athlete, his/her attitude towards wins and losses, level of self-confidence, and resistance to failure.

In sports psychology, three main models of parental influence on the development of stress resilience in young athletes have been identified (fig. 6).

Figure 6. Main models of parental influence

The emotionally detached model is one in which parents are least involved in the sporting life of a child. Different from the controlling or supportive styles, where there is a parental active involvement in the sporting life of a child through organizational or emotional support, this model is one in which parents either completely avoid the training process or do not care about the failures and achievements of the young athlete. Thereby, the kid develops some of the psychological issues that hinder their motivation, self-esteem, and ability to deal with stressful events [19].

Distantness has a number of its dire outcomes involving loss of internal motivation and external motivation. Non-reinforcement or lack of validation by the parents towards the efforts of the child denies a long-term belief that sports are worthwhile to be engaged in. Validation from elsewhere being absent, the child’s practice interest may decrease as they no longer feel their labor to be recognized and cherished by others. This has a specific impact on intrinsic motivation, which is of vital significance in sports as it decides the athlete’s capacity to continue training and overcome obstacles even in the absence of instant success.

Decreasing self-confidence is another key feature. One of the greatest influences on positive self and belief in ability is the support of parents. If parents are not interested in such sporting achievement by their child, then the child will begin questioning the importance of such achievement, therefore doing away with self-confidence and lower confidence in their capability. Lack of sufficient positive reinforcement compromises the athlete’s belief of competence, something which is very vital during pressurizing situations like competition where there needs to be high self-efficacy.

Additionally, kids raised in a culture of remote parental involvement are prone to struggle with overcoming stressful experiences. Unlike kids whose parents take an active role in helping them learn coping strategies, these athletes must look after themselves when they encounter anxiety, mood swings, and disappointment. The absence of positive conversations about failures and support during difficult moments reduces a child’s resilience in the face of psychological stress.

Another negative consequence is the feeling of emotional isolation and a decrease in attachment levels. Parents who have limited interest in their child’s sporting career can create a sense of emotional distance, which can lead to lower overall emotional resilience and self-regulation capacity. Research in sports psychology indicates that children who receive little emotional support from parents are more likely to experience frustration, anxiety, and feeling insignificant, which can influence both sporting performance and overall psychological well-being [20, 21].

Thus, a model of remote parental involvement in sport can bring about several negative consequences, including reduced motivation, self-esteem, and resistance to stress. To prevent these consequences, parents, even if they are not interested in their child’s sport, should provide at least minimal support, recognize achievements, help them overcome failures, and encourage independence in attaining their sporting objectives.

The controlling model is characterized by parental over-control in which the parents will seek to manage their child’s participation in sport in its entire form, becoming the primary organizers of training and competition. Parents employing this model are typically over-concerned with the end result of competition, are single-mindedly outcome-oriented, achievement-focussed, and place high expectations and strict success criteria. This parenting style has various psychological consequences, all of which reduce the stress resilience and well-being of young athletes.

One of the most pronounced effects of this overprotective model is increased pre-competition anxiety. Children under constant parental pressure experience significant worry before competitions, perceiving them not as an opportunity to demonstrate their abilities but as a test where failure could lead to disappointment from their parents. This results in cognitive overload, the development of irrational beliefs (“If I lose, I will no longer be supported”, “My mistakes are unacceptable”), and reduced self-confidence.

Furthermore, overprotection lowers an athlete’s level of independence and self-regulation. Parents who wish to direct every action of their child deprive them of decision-making, and as a result, they become less capable of dealing with stressful situations. In competitive situations where adaptability is a requirement, quick response, and coping with ambiguity, these players falter since they are accustomed to relying on external direction and instruction.

Another negative consequence of overprotection is the development of dependence on external evaluation. An athlete raised in an environment of constant control and high expectations begins to perceive success not as a personal achievement but as a way to fulfill their parents’ ambitions. As a result, their motivation becomes primarily external (extrinsic motivation) – they strive not for self-realization but for praise and approval. In cases of failure, such children experience deep disappointment, guilt, and a loss of motivation for further training.

Thus, the overprotective parental style in sport generates psychological barriers, not allowing for the building of stress resilience. To minimize its negative influence, it is required to redistribute the responsibility for success and failure, promote the development of intrinsically motivated behavior, and build self-confidence in athletes that is independent of external evaluation.

Supporting parental model assumes an active participation of parents in the sport activity of a child in the form of genuine interest in their successes, moral support, and reinforcement of a healthy relationship with training and competition. They do not promote outcomes but create an environment for success and failure so that the child can realize them as a process of development and living. They favor initiative, autonomy, and efforts towards self-actualization, thereby promoting intrinsic motivation, which is of central concern in long-term sport participation maintenance.

In this approach, the child is praised in failure and develop confidence through positive reinforcement of progress and effort. Interestingly, parents do not necessarily praise success but instead praise the effort that has been invested in achieving results, thus eradicating fear of failure. This approach allows the athlete to build psychological toughness, their stress tolerance is increased, and competition-induced anxiety is reduced. Besides, the supportive parenting model creates a warm emotional atmosphere, enriches the feeling of security and trust, which is crucial for a child’s self-confidence development and the ability to self-regulate.

Interaction in this model also contributes to the development of positive coping strategies for stress. Athletes who have parental support more successfully utilize cognitive and behavioral mechanisms for overcoming setbacks, adjust to high workloads with greater ease, and maintain their emotional stability even under the circumstances of high competitiveness. Parents adhering to this style not only serve as a source of emotional stability but also as a guiding force for the development of a mature and conscious attitude towards sports.

The most effective parenting style in building psychological resilience is the supportive style, whereby the parents help the athlete cope with adversity but allow the athlete decision-making autonomy and emotional independence from others.

The sports environment, including the team, training partners, and peers, has a significant impact on emotional regulation, motivation levels, and an athlete’s ability to adapt to stressful situations [22]. In sports groups, a specific social atmosphere is formed, which can either contribute to the development of stress resilience or, conversely, increase levels of anxiety and tension (fig. 7).

Figure 7. The influence of the team on an athlete’s psychological resilience

Social support, in the form of perceived togetherness in the team, harmonious relations with the team members, and support from peers, is most critical to reduce the levels of anxiety and hardiness formation. In a team, after a sportsperson is emotionally supported and viewed as being trusted by others, supportive environment is built to develop self-confidence, effort drive to surmount the failures, and positive attitude towards failure. Positive group climate and mutual understanding lower competitive tension and lower negative response to stressful conditions.

The competitive environment, in turn, can either promote an athlete’s psychological growth or lead to emotional exhaustion, depending on the level of competition and the nature of interpersonal interactions. A positive competitive atmosphere provokes athletes to self-develop, achieve self-regulation skills, and be goal-oriented. However, exaggerated intensification of competitive pressure, generating conflicts, interpersonal tension, and constant comparison with others, can reduce self-confidence, induce anxiety, and hinder successful recovery after failure. To provide the optimal level of motivation, it is necessary that teams adopt clear principles of competitive interaction, eliminating aggressive competition and fostering respect and mutual support for athletes.

Leadership within the team also plays a crucial role in shaping psychological resilience. The influence of high self-regulation, stress resistance, and confidence of master athletes has a major impact on the psychological state of less competent athletes. Such models allow less competent athletes to build healthy coping strategies, improve self-esteem, and improve intrinsic motivation.

Thus, team climate exerts a significant influence on the psychological resilience of an athlete. A balanced combination of social support, positive competitive climate, and effective leadership assists in strengthening psychological flexibility, creating self-confidence, and developing stable mechanisms of self-regulation ensuring high-level sporting performance.

1.3. The role of the coach in developing psychological resilience

The coach has a great impact on the psychological resilience of an athlete since they determine training strategy, the target of performance, and form the attitude of an athlete toward breakthrough. The impact reaches the physical training itself and even more significantly reaches the emotional field of athletes, to their stress resistance and motivational skills [23]. The relationship between the coach and athletes, as well as the style of the coach, also affects the psychological atmosphere in the team and can enhance or destroy stress resilience.

An athlete’s psychological steadiness to a large degree rely on the order and climate of the training process. The optimum conditions are found by coaching strategy combining high requirements with support, uniting disciplined training with building athlete autonomy. One of the most important things is the coaching leadership, not only controlling the training process, but also creating stable motivational orientation, self-reliance, and emotional regulation skills. In a best-case model of leadership, the coach not only supports task achievement but also helps athletes learn cognitive coping skills for stress management, reducing pre-competition anxiety, and improving adaptability.

Different coaching styles have varying effects on an athlete’s psychological resilience. Sports psychology identifies several key coaching behavior models, which differ in their level of control, degree of support, and the extent to which athletes participate in decision-making (table 3).

Table 3. The influence of coaching leadership models on an athlete’s stress resilience

The effective work of a coach is not only aimed at the formation of physical and technical skills but also at the psychological preparation of sportsmen to deal with stressful situations. This is done by applying cognitive-behavioral correction methods, training in coping skills, and the development of self-regulation mechanisms. The coach must not only transfer demands and control but also create conditions for the formation of self-confidence, stable motivation, and emotional regulation skills.

In a study [24], in which the perceptions of coaches’ leadership by athletes in championship squads were studied, it was found that the most important aspects of coaching that contribute to the development of stress resilience are instruction and training (M = 3.96, SD = 0.63), democratic behavior (M = 3.61, SD = 0.79), and positive feedback (M = 3.49, SD = 0.71). These types of leadership assist in the development of self-control and confidence among sportsmen, particularly in tense competitive situations. Autocratic coaching behavior (M = 2.38, SD = 0.68), however, was scored by sportsmen as significantly lower, which indicates the inefficacy of a controlling style of management in developing psychological resilience.

Results of the Mann-Whitney U test showed that female athletes rated coaching leadership higher than male athletes (U = 5958.500, p <0.05), and team sport athletes perceived greater support from coaches compared to individual sport athletes (U = 4947.00, p <0.05). In addition, women team players emphasized more frequently the importance of democratic behavior of the coach, support from society, and positive feedback, whereas male individual players valued order and control more. As it is remarkable, athletes’ age could not influence the perception of leadership of coaches, which testifies to the high stability of preference across all phases of sports training.

A total of 236 young student-athletes participated in the study, representing championship teams in basketball, handball, volleyball, futsal, badminton, wrestling, and swimming. Data collection was conducted using a questionnaire based on Chelladurai and Saleh’s (1980) Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS), designed to assess athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ leadership styles. The questionnaire comprised 40 items that were presented in five subscales: training and instruction, democratic behavior, autocratic behavior, social support, and positive feedback. Every statement was marked by the respondents on a five-point Likert scale (1 – “never” to 5 – “always”).

During this study, M (mean value) was used to identify how often athletes rated the frequency of some of the coaching leadership attributes, and SD (standard deviation) indicated the degree of variation in these ratings. To compare differences in independent groups (e.g., sport type or gender), the Mann-Whitney U test was used, which allowed identification of statistically significant differences in the perception of coaching leadership behavior.

These findings highlight the most effective forms of coaching interventions for building resilience to stress are guided direction, emotional support, and granting the athletes some autonomy. Coaches must not only provide technical directions but also set a positive psychological climate that helps build confidence and adaptive coping during pressure.

The ability of a coach to create a supportive environment where an athlete feels confident and motivated is of particular importance. There are four main components of a coach’s social support, each playing a crucial role in the athlete’s preparation process and the development of psychological resilience (fig. 8).

Figure 8. Components of coach’s social support

Appraisal assistance is communicated through constructive criticism, which allows sportsmen to objectively measure their performance, become aware of their progress, and coordinate their future training. Constructive evaluation should not merely identify mistakes but also emphasize successful periods of performance to reinforce the player’s confidence in their competence. Feedback should be immediate, objective, and positive in nature rather than negative. For example, a coach may apply the sandwich technique, where feedback is provided in the sequence of first pointing out the athlete’s strengths, then areas of improvement, and finally, proposals for correction. In so doing, the stress level is reduced, and the athletes can perceive criticism as an incentive to improve and not as a factor to ruin their confidence.

The emotional support of coaches can best be depicted by empathy, comprehension, and encouragement, wherever necessary for the alleviation of anxiety among athletes. If a coach worries about his/her players’ welfare, morally sides with them during adversity, and motivates them not only to play exceptionally but also to grow on an individual level, it provides self-assurance to athletes. It is especially necessary for coaches to assist sportsmen in dealing with failures, portraying them as part of perfection, but not as a fault on their part. The presence of the coach lowers the risk of emotional burnout and provides high sports involvement.

Instrumental support represents implemented assistance in the training process, providing recommendations for training techniques, designing training sessions, and maximizing performance efficiency. When providing instrumental support, a coach must not only offer athletes materials they require (i.e., methodological resources and individual training plans) but also help them habituate to new conditions, suppress errors, and attain optimal solutions in complex competitive situations. Instrumental support is most critical when learning new methods or strategic maneuvers, when one needs additional support to master effectively.

Informational support entails the explanation of training and competition tactical, technical, and strategic details. Well-organized information assists athletes in better understanding their strength and weakness, training and competition objectives, and developing individual preparation plans. For example, a coach may analyze opponents’ strategies, review mistakes after competitions, or provide recommendations for performance improvement. It is important that information is presented in an accessible format and aligns with the athlete’s skill level, as excessive complexity or lack of specificity may reduce the effectiveness of comprehension.

The training of sports coaches requires a comprehensive approach that integrates knowledge in training methodology, sports science disciplines, pedagogy, and psychology [25]. The effective coach must be trained in the latest organization techniques of training based on science-supported principles to ensure maximum physical, technical, and tactical development of athletes. Preparation at the methodological level includes not just the realization of work load planning details and the acceptance of training process orientation to suit athlete-specific variables but also determining the effectiveness of various approaches to training based on objective evidence and scientific observation.

Disciplinary knowledge in the fields of sport physiology, biomechanics, and nutrition enables coaches to develop rational physical training programs aimed at sport performance maximization without any losses to the health of athletes. Mastery of the fundamentals of sports medicine is an important factor in minimizing the risks of injury and providing efficient processes of recovery. Modern technologies of control over the functional state of athletes, including biochemical and physiological analysis, are also included in the professional competence of a coach.

The pedagogical component of training focuses on developing skills for effective interaction with athletes and structuring an optimal educational process that fosters motivation for training and self-improvement. The coach must master methods of instruction that provide deliberate learning of tactics and techniques and adapt methodological approaches depending on the age, level of sports skill, and personality of the athletes. The acquisition of communication skills and dialogue capacity is a condition for the success of a coach, as it builds trust among the team and enhances athletes’ intrinsic motivation.

Psychological preparation is at the heart of coaches’ professional development because psychological toughness, emotional intelligence, and the ability to deal with team dynamics dictate the success of a coach in handling stressful situations and complex issues arising from competition. Sport psychology education allows the coach to consider players’ variations in responding to stress, build adaptive coping ability, and build confidence, focus, and control of emotions. The quality of training is defined by the interaction between the athlete and the coach and thus requires a coach to offer emotional, instrumental, information, and appraisal support in his coaching.

Thus, pedagogical professional training is a many-sided process of studying methodological laws, special scientific sport discipline knowledge, teaching, and psychological techniques. High proficiency in these spheres not only enables a coach to improve physical and technical abilities of the sportsmen qualitatively but also to create a positive psychological environment, such as stress resistance, high motivation, and self-regulation abilities, in the competitive environment of sports activity.

The coach is responsible for shaping the psychological resilience of an athlete. Effective coaching behavior must combine structured guidance, emotional support, and autonomy development, promoting adaptive coping strategy formation and enhanced self-confidence.