As a general rule which is in line with the present-day aromatherapy ‘code of practice’, it is best to use essential oils as external remedies only. This is mainly due to the high concentration of the oils and the potential irritation or damage that they can cause to the mucous membranes and delicate stomach lining in undiluted form. There even seems to be some kind of natural order in this scheme, in that volatile oils mix readily with oils and ointments suited to external application, which are absorbed readily through the skin and vaporize easily for inhalation. When inhaled, they can affect an individual’s mood or feelings, and at the same time cause physiological changes in the body. Indeed, in a Japanese experiment carried out in 1963, it was found that the effects of essential oils on the digestive system were likely to be stronger if they were inhaled than if they were ingested. Herbs, on the other hand, yield up many of their qualities to water and alcohol which are appropriate for internal use but, lacking the concentrated aromatic element, they do not have the same subtle effects on the mind and emotions.

These are only superficial guidelines, for there are always exceptions to the rule. Plantain, for example, is an excellent wound-healing herb valuable for external use, although it does not contain any essential oil. Nor can we ignore the fact that a great many aromatic oils are used for flavouring our food and beverages and are consumed daily in minute amounts. Peppermint oil, for example, is used in a wide variety of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, confectionery and prepared savoury foods, although the highest average use does not exceed 0.104 per cent. The mint oils, which include spearmint and cornmint, are also used extensively by the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries in products such as toothpaste, cough and cold remedies, and as fragrance components in soaps, creams, lotions, as well as colognes and perfumes. In addition, cornmint is frequently used as the starting material for the production of ‘menthol’ for use in the drug industry.

It can be seen that the use of essential oils covers a wide and varied spectrum. On the one hand they share the holistic qualities of natural plant remedies, although it is true that some herbalists view essential oils in much the same light as they regard synthetic drugs, being a ‘part’ of the whole, rather than the entire herb. On the other hand, they play an active role in the modern pharmaceutical industry, either in their entirety or in the form of isolated constituents such as ‘phenol’ or ‘menthol’.

It is not the aim of this book to glorify natural remedies (some of which are in fact highly toxic) at the expense of scientific progress, nor to uphold the principles of our present-day drug-orientated culture, but simply to provide information about the oils themselves in their multifaceted nature.

Safety Precautions

Safety Data:

Always check with specific SAFETY DATA before using a new oil, especially with regard to toxicity levels, phototoxicity, dermal irritation and sensitization.

Contra-Indications:

Take note of any contra-indications when using particular oils. For example, fennel, hyssop and sage should be avoided by epileptics; clary sage should not be used while drinking alcohol; hops should not be used by anyone suffering from depression.

High Blood Pressure:

Avoid the following oils in cases of high blood pressure: hyssop, rosemary, sage (all types) and thyme.

Homoeopathy:

Homoeopathic treatment is not compatible with the following oils: black pepper, camphor, eucalyptus and the mint oils.

Pregnancy:

During pregnancy use essential oils in half the usual stated amount. Take note of those oils which are contra-indicated in pregnancy.

Babies And Children:

Use with care, in accordance with age.

Babies (0–12 months) – use 1 drop of lavender, rose, chamomile or mandarin diluted in 1 tsp base oil for massage or bathing.

Infants (1–5 years) – use 2–3 drops of ‘safe’ essential oils (non-toxic and non irritant to the skin), diluted in 1 tsp base oil for massage or bathing.

Children (6–12 years) – use as for adults but in half the stated amount. Teenagers (over 12 years) – use as directed for adults.

3. THE BODY – ACTIONS AND APPLICATIONS

How Essential Oils Work

The therapeutic potential of essential oils, like other plant-derived remedies, has yet to be fully realized. Although numerous medical herbs have been utilized since antiquity, many of which have been exploited to provide the biologically active compounds which form the basis for most of our modern drugs (such as quinine and cocaine), there is still a great deal to be learnt about their precise pharmacology. This is particularly true of aromatic oils, which by their very nature have such a concentrated yet multifaceted make up. In addition, ‘only a small proportion of the world flora has been examined for pharmacologically active compounds, but with the ever-increasing danger of plants becoming extinct, there is a real risk that many important plant sources may be lost’.

Modern research has largely confirmed the traditionally held beliefs regarding the therapeutic uses of particular plants, although with time the terminology has changed. A herb such as basil, at one time described as a ‘protection against evil’, or ‘good for the heart’ whose scent ‘taketh away sorrowfulness’, may in modern usage be described as an excellent prophylactic, nerve tonic and antidepressant. Like herbal remedies, an essential oil can cover a wide field of activities; indeed the same herb or oil (such as Melissa) can stimulate certain systems of the body while sedating or relaxing others. In order to gain a clearer understanding of the way essential oils work, and some of their particular areas of activity, it may be helpful to take an overall view of the systems of the human body.

The Skin

Skin problems are often the surface manifestation of a deeper condition, such as a build-up of toxins in the blood, hormonal imbalance or nervous and emotional difficulties. In this area the versatility of essential oils is particularly valuable because they are able to combat such complaints on a variety of levels. Since essential oils are soluble in oil and alcohol and impart their scent to water, they provide the ideal ingredient for cosmetics and general skin care as well as for the treatment of specific diseases.

Within this context the following activities are of particular benefit:

Antiseptics

for cuts, insect bites, spots, etc; for example, thyme, sage, eucalyptus, tea tree, clove, lavender and lemon.

Anti-inflammatory oils

for eczema, infected wounds, bumps, bruises, etc; for example, German and Roman chamomile, lavender and yarrow.

Fungicidal oils

for athlete’s foot, candida, ringworm, etc; for example, lavender, tea tree, myrrh, patchouli and sweet marjoram.

Granulation stimulating or cicatrizing (healing) agents

for burns, cuts, scars, stretch marks, etc; for example, lavender, chamomile, rose, neroli, frankincense and geranium.

Deodorants

for excessive perspiration, cleaning wounds, etc; for example, bergamot, lavender, thyme, juniper, cypress, Spanish sage, lemongrass.

Insect repellents and parasiticides

for lice, fleas, scabies, ticks, mosquitos, ants, moths, etc; for example, spike lavender, garlic, geranium, citronella, eucalyptus, clove, camphor, Atlas cedarwood.

The Circulation, Muscles and Joints

Essential oils are easily absorbed via the skin and mucosa into the bloodstream, affecting the nature of the circulation as a whole. Oils with a rubefacient or warming effect not only cause a better local blood circulation, but also influence the inner organs. They bring a warmth and glow to the surface of the skin and can provide considerable pain relief through their analgesic or numbing effect. Such oils can relieve local inflammation by setting free mediators in the body which in turn cause the blood vessels to expand, so the blood is able to move more quickly and the swelling is reduced. Some oils like hyssop tend to have a balancing or regulating effect on the circulatory system as a whole, reducing the blood pressure if it is too high or stimulating the system if it is sluggish.

Hypotensives

for high blood pressure, palpitations, stress, etc; for example, sweet marjoram, ylang ylang, lavender, lemon.

Hypertensives

for poor circulation, chilblains, listlessness, etc; for example, rosemary, spike lavender, eucalyptus, peppermint, thyme.

Rubefacients

for rheumatism of the joints, muscular stiffness, sciatica, lumbago, etc; for example, black pepper, juniper, rosemary, camphor, sweet marjoram.

Depurative or antitoxic agents

for arthritis, gout, congestion, skin eruptions, etc; for example, juniper, lemon, fennel, lovage.

Lymphatic stimulants

for cellulitis, obesity, water retention, etc; for example, grapefruit, lime, fennel, lemon, mandarin, white birch.

Circulatory tonics and astringents

for swellings, inflammations, varicose veins, etc; for example, cypress, yarrow, lemon.

The Respiratory System

Nose, throat and lung infections are conditions which respond very well to treatment with essential oils. Inhalation is a very effective way of utilizing their properties, for ‘although after arriving in the bronchi the main part will be exhaled directly by the lungs, they cause an increased bronchial secretion (a protective reaction) which is beneficial for many respiratory ailments’.

By inhalation they are absorbed into the blood circulation even faster than by oral application. In addition, most essential oils which are absorbed from the stomach are then excreted via the lungs, only a small part in the urine.

Expectorants

for catarrh, sinusitis, coughs, bronchitis, etc; for example, eucalyptus, pine, thyme, myrrh, sandalwood, fennel.

Antispasmodics

for colic, asthma, dry cough, whooping cough, etc; for example, hyssop, cypress, Atlas cedarwood, bergamot, chamomile, cajeput.

Balsamic agents

for colds, chills, congestion, etc; for example, benzoin, frankincense, Tolu balsam, Peru balsam, myrrh.

Antiseptics

for ’flu, colds, sore throat, tonsillitis, gingivitis, etc; for example, thyme, sage, eucalyptus, hyssop, pine, cajeput, tea tree, borneol.

The Digestive System

Although it is not recommended that essential oils be taken orally, they can by external application effect certain changes in the digestive processes. However, whereas herbal medicine has many remedies at its disposal for a wide variety of stomach, gall bladder and liver complaints, such as dandelion, marshmallow, chamomile and meadowsweet, much of their effectiveness is based on a combination of aromatic components, together with bitters, tannins and mucilage, which are absent in the volatile oil alone. The external application of essential oils in problems of the digestive system though effective, is consequently somewhat limited compared to the internal use of herbal remedies.

Antispasmodics

for spasm, pain, indigestion, etc; for example, chamomile, caraway, fennel, orange, peppermint, Melissa, aniseed, cinnamon.

Carminatives and stomachics

for flatulent dyspepsia, aerophagia, nausea, etc; for example, angelica, basil, fennel, chamomile, peppermint, mandarin.

Cholagogues

for increasing the flow of bile and stimulating the gall bladder; for example, caraway, lavender, peppermint and borneol.

Hepatics

for liver congestion, jaundice, ere; for example, lemon, lime, rosemary, peppermint.

Aperitifs

for loss of appetite, anorexia, etc; for example, aniseed, angelica, orange, ginger, garlic.

The Genito-urinary and Endocrine Systems

Like the digestive system, the reproductive organs can be affected by absorption via the skin into the bloodstream, as well as through hormonal changes. Some essential oils such as rose and jasmine have an affinity for the reproductive system having a general strengthening effect as well as helping to combat specific complaints like menstrual problems, genital infections and sexual difficulties. Other oils contain plant hormones which mimic the corresponding human hormones; oils such as hops, sage and fennel have been found to contain a form of oestrogen that influences the menstrual cycle, lactation and secondary sexual characteristics. Oestrogen also helps maintain a healthy circulation, good muscle and skin tone and strong bones in both men and women.

Other essential oils are known to influence the levels of hormone secretion of other glands, including the thyroid gland (which governs growth and metabolism), the adrenal medulla (which deals with stress reactions) and the adrenal cortex (which governs several processes including the production of oestrogen and androgen, the male sex hormone).

Antispasmodics

for menstrual cramp (dysmenorrhoea), labour pains, etc; for example, sweet marjoram, chamomile, clary sage, jasmine, lavender.

Emmenagogues

for scanty periods, lack of periods (amenorrhoea), etc; for example, chamomile, fennel, hyssop, juniper, sweet marjoram, peppermint.

Uterine tonics and regulators

for pregnancy, excess menstruation (menorrhagia), PMT, etc; for example, clary sage, jasmine, rose, myrrh, frankincense, Melissa.

Antiseptic and bactericidal agents

for leucorrhoea, vaginal pruritis, thrush, etc; for example, bergamot, chamomile, myrrh, rose, tea tree.

Galactagogues

for increasing milk flow; for example, fennel, jasmine, anise, lemongrass (sage, mint and parsley reduce it).

Aphrodisiacs

for impotence and frigidity, etc; for example, black pepper, cardamon, clary sage, neroli, jasmine, rose, sandalwood, patchouli, ylang ylang.

Anaphrodisiacs

for reducing sexual desire; for example, sweet marjoram, camphor.

Adrenal stimulants

for anxiety, stress-related conditions, etc; for example, basil, geranium, rosemary, borneol, sage, pine, savory.

With regard to the kidneys, bladder and urinary system in general, it is difficult to bring about results simply by using essential oils. According to recent research, ‘the diuretic effects of essential oils are virtually nonexistent’.

In addition, the traditional diuretic agents such as juniper, lovage and parsley seed are considered unsuitable as essential oils for internal use due to toxicity levels and possible kidney damage; herb teas of fennel, dandelion or chamomile provide a milder alternative. Bathing and using a douche can help control urinary infections, especially when they are associated with nervous or stress-related symptoms.

Urinary antiseptics

for cystitis, urethritis, etc; for example, bergamot, chamomile, tea tree, sandalwood.

‘Lerne the hygh and mervelous vertue of herbes … use the effectes with reverence, and give thankes to the maker celestyall’; from Braunsweig’s

The Vertuose Bake of Distyllacyon of the Waters of all Maner of Herbes

, 1527

The Immune System

Virtually all essential oils have bactericidal properties and by promoting the production of white blood cells, they can help prevent and treat infectious illness. It is these properties that gave aromatic herbs and oils such high repute with regard to infections such as malaria and typhoid in the tropics and epidemics of plague in the Middle Ages. ‘People who use essential oils all the time … mostly have a high level of resistance to illness, catching fewer colds, etc, than average and recovering quickly if they do.’

Bactericidal and antiviral agents

(prophylactics) for protection against colds, ’flu, etc; for example, tea tree, cajeput, niaouli, basil, lavender, eucalyptus, bergamot, camphor, clove, rosemary.

Febrifuge agents

for reducing fever and temperature, etc; for example, angelica, basil, peppermint, thyme, sage, lemon, eucalyptus, tea tree.

Sudorifics and diaphoretics

for promoting sweating, eliminating toxins, etc; for example, rosemary, thyme, hyssop, chamomile.

The Nervous System

Recent research shows that the properties of many oils correspond to the traditionally held views: chamomile, bergamot, sandalwood, lavender and sweet marjoram were found to have a sedative effect on the central nervous system; jasmine, peppermint, basil, clove and ylang ylang were found to have a stimulating effect. Neroli was found to be stimulating and lemon to be sedating, contrary to popular belief. Some oils are known to be ‘adaptogens’, that is, they have a balancing or normalizing effect on the systems of the body: geranium and rosewood were either sedative or stimulating according to each situation and individual.

Words like ‘relaxing’ and ‘uplifting’ often have more to do with odour description and emotional response rather than physiological effect – although the two are related. Consequently, oils such as bergamot, Melissa or lemon can be sedating to the nervous system, but reviving to the ‘spirit’. Conversely, oils such as jasmine, ylang ylang and neroli can be nerve stimulants yet soothing and relaxing on a more subtle emotional level.

Sedatives

for nervous tension, stress, insomnia,

etc

; for example, chamomile, bergamot, sandalwood, lavender, sweet marjoram, Melissa, hops, valerian, lemon.

Stimulants

for convalescence, lack of strength, nervous fatigue, etc; for example, basil, jasmine, peppermint, ylang ylang, neroli, angelica, rosemary.

Nerve tonics (nervines)

for strengthening the nervous system as a whole; for example, chamomile, clary sage, juniper, lavender, marjoram, rosemary.

The Mind

This area is perhaps the most discussed and least understood area of activity regarding essential oils. There is no doubt that throughout history aromatic oils have been used for their power to influence the emotions and states of mind: this is the basis for their employment as incense for religious and ritualistic purposes. It is already known that two olfactory nerve tracts run right into the limbic system (the part of the brain concerned with memory and emotion), which means that scents can evoke an immediate and powerful response which defies rational analysis.

Recent research at Warwick University, England, and Toho University, Japan, has aimed to put these traditionally held beliefs and applications into a scientific context. They came up with two types of reaction to odours which they called a ‘hard-wired’ response or a ‘soft-wired’ response: the first type is ingrained from before birth and is purely instinctual; the second is learned or acquired later on. The first type may be, for example, the scent of the mother’s skin or a sexual signal; the second might be the fragrance of honeysuckle, reminiscent of a childhood garden.

A discourse on the Virtues of the Rose; from Champier’s

Rosa Gallica

, 1514

But to what extent is the effect of a particular oil dependent upon its chemical or physiological make-up, and to what extent does it rely upon a belief or an association? In dealing with the psychological or emotional responses to the scent of a particular oil, this kind of classification becomes much more difficult: surely here it is more appropriate to consider the temperament of each individual within a given context, rather than predict a set reaction.

At the Psychology of Perfumery Conference 1991, it was generally agreed that ‘while pharmacological effects may be very similar from one person to another, psychological effects are bound to be different’.

The effect of an odour on a human being was dependent on a variety of factors which include:

1. how the odour was applied,

2. how much was applied,

3. the circumstances in which it was applied,

4. the person to whom it was applied (age, sex, personality type),

5. what mood they were in to start with,

6. what previous associations they may have with the odour,

7. anosmia, or inability to smell (certain scents).

We must, therefore, seek odoriferous substances which present affinities with the human being we intend to treat, those which will compensate for his deficiencies and those which will make his faculties blossom. It was by searching for this remedy that we encountered the

individual prescription

(IP), which on all points represents the identity of the individual.

When we begin to consider individual needs, essential oils start to demonstrate the versatility of their nature. The rose is a good example; a flower which has been asso

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